Which Of The Following Is Not One Of The Five Chief Changes In Cognition During Adolescence?

What you lot'll acquire to practice: describe changes in cognitive development and moral reasoning during adolescence

Here nosotros acquire virtually adolescent cognitive evolution. In adolescence, changes in the brain interact with feel, noesis, and social demands and produce rapid cognitive growth. The changes in how adolescents think, reason, and understand can be even more than dramatic than their obvious physical changes. This stage of cognitive development, termed by Piaget as the formal operational stage, marks a motion from the power to recollect and reason logically merely about concrete, visible events to an power to besides think logically about abstruse concepts.

Adolescents are now able to analyze situations logically in terms of crusade and consequence and to entertain hypothetical situations and entertain what-if possibilities about the world. This higher-level thinking allows them to think about the futurity, evaluate alternatives, and set personal goals. Although there are marked private differences in cognitive development amidst teens, these new capacities allow adolescents to engage in the kind of introspection and mature conclusion making that was previously beyond their cognitive capacity.

Learning outcomes

• Explain Piaget'southward theory on formal operational thought
• Draw cerebral abilities and changes during adolescence
• Describe the role of secondary education in boyish evolution
• Describe moral development during adolescence

Cognitive Evolution during Adolescence

Figure 1. Adolescents practice their developing abstruse and hypothetical thinking skills, coming upwards with alternative interpretations of information.

Boyhood is a time of rapid cognitive evolution. Biological changes in brain structure and connectivity in the brain collaborate with increased experience, cognition, and changing social demands to produce rapid cognitive growth. These changes generally begin at puberty or shortly thereafter, and some skills go along to develop as an adolescent ages. Evolution of executive functions, or cognitive skills that enable the control and coordination of thoughts and beliefs, are by and large associated with the prefrontal cortex area of the encephalon. The thoughts, ideas, and concepts developed at this period of life profoundly influence 1's future life and play a major role in character and personality formation.

Perspectives and Advancements in Adolescent Thinking

There are two perspectives on boyish thinking: constructivist and information-processing. The constructivist perspective , based on the work of Piaget, takes a quantitative, stage-theory arroyo. This view hypothesizes that adolescents' cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic. The information-processing perspectivederives from the study of artificial intelligence and explains cognitive development in terms of the growth of specific components of the overall process of thinking.

Improvements in basic thinking abilities mostly occur in five areas during boyhood:

• Attention. Improvements are seen in selective attending (the procedure by which 1 focuses on 1 stimulus while tuning out another), too as divided attention (the ability to pay attending to two or more stimuli at the aforementioned time).
• Memory. Improvements are seen in working retentivity and long-term retention.
• Processing Speed.Adolescents recollect more quickly than children. Processing speed improves sharply between age v and middle adolescence, levels off effectually age 15, and does not appear to change between late boyhood and adulthood.
• System. Adolescents are more enlightened of their own thought processes and can use mnemonic devices and other strategies to think and call back data more efficiently.
• Metacognition. Adolescents tin recollect about thinking itself. This ofttimes involves monitoring i'southward own cognitive activity during the thinking process. Metacognition provides the ability to programme ahead, see the hereafter consequences of an activeness, and provide alternative explanations of events.

Formal Operational Idea

In the concluding of the Piagetian stages, a child becomes able to reason not merely about tangible objects and events, but also about hypothetical or abstract ones. Hence information technology has the name formal operational stage—the period when the private can "operate" on "forms" or representations. This allows an individual to think and reason with a wider perspective. This phase of cognitive development, termed by Piaget as formal operational thought, marks a movement from an ability to call up and reason from concrete visible events to an ability to think hypothetically and entertain what-if possibilities near the world. An private can solve issues through abstruse concepts and utilize hypothetical and deductive reasoning. Adolescents use trial and error to solve problems, and the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical mode emerges.

WAtch It

This video explains some of the cognitive development consistent with formal operational idea.

Formal Operational Thinking in the Classroom

School is a chief contributor in guiding students towards formal operational idea. With students at this level, the instructor can pose hypothetical (or contrary-to-fact) problems: "Whatifthe world had never discovered oil?" or "Whatif the outset European explorers had settled first in California instead of on the Eastward Declension of the United states of america?" To answer such questions, students must use hypothetical reasoning, pregnant that they must manipulate ideas that vary in several means at in one case, and do so entirely in their minds.

The hypothetical reasoning that concerned Piaget primarily involved scientific bug. His studies of formal operational thinking therefore often look like bug that middle or loftier schoolhouse teachers pose in science classes. In one problem, for case, a young person is presented with a elementary pendulum, to which dissimilar amounts of weight can be hung (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). The experimenter asks: "What determines how fast the pendulum swings: the length of the string holding information technology, the weight attached to information technology, or the distance that it is pulled to the side?" The immature person is not allowed to solve this problem past trial-and-error with the materials themselves, but must reason a way to the solution mentally. To practice so systematically, he or she must imagine varying each cistron separately, while too imagining the other factors that are held constant. This kind of thinking requires facility at manipulating mental representations of the relevant objects and deportment—precisely the skill that defines formal operations.

As yous might suspect, students with an ability to retrieve hypothetically accept an advantage in many kinds of school work: by definition, they require relatively few "props" to solve problems. In this sense they can in principle be more self-directed than students who rely only on concrete operations—certainly a desirable quality in the opinion of most teachers. Annotation, though, that formal operational thinking is desirable merely notsufficient for schoolhouse success, and that it is far from being the only way that students accomplish educational success. Formal thinking skills do not insure that a student is motivated or well-behaved, for case, nor does it guarantee other desirable skills. The fourth stage in Piaget's theory is actually about a item kind of formal thinking, the kind needed to solve scientific problems and devise scientific experiments. Since many people do not normally deal with such problems in the normal course of their lives, it should be no surprise that inquiry finds that many people never achieve or apply formal thinking fully or consistently, or that they use it only in selected areas with which they are very familiar (Case & Okomato, 1996). For teachers, the limitations of Piaget's ideas suggest a need for additional theories well-nigh development—ones that focus more straight on the social and interpersonal problems of babyhood and adolescence.

Hypothetical and abstract thinking

I of the major premises of formal operational thought is the chapters to remember of possibility, not only reality. Adolescents' thinking is less bound to concrete events than that of children; they can contemplate possibilities exterior the realm of what currently exists. One manifestation of the adolescent's increased facility with thinking near possibilities is the improvement of skill indeductive reasoning (also called top-downward reasoning), which leads to the development of hypothetical thinking. This provides the power to plan ahead, see the time to come consequences of an activeness and to provide alternative explanations of events. It besides makes adolescents more than skilled debaters, as they tin can reason against a friend's or parent's assumptions. Adolescents also develop a more sophisticated understanding of probability.

This advent of more than systematic, abstract thinking allows adolescents to encompass the sorts of college-order abstract logic inherent in puns, proverbs, metaphors, and analogies. Their increased facility permits them to appreciate the ways in which linguistic communication tin can be used to convey multiple letters, such every bit satire, metaphor, and sarcasm. (Children younger than age nine oftentimes cannot embrace sarcasm at all). This besides permits the application of advanced reasoning and logical processes to social and ideological matters such as interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, organized religion, morality, friendship, faith, fairness, and honesty.

Metacognition

Metacognition refers to "thinking nigh thinking." It is relevant in social cognition equally it results in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization. Adolescents are much better able to understand that people practice non accept complete control over their mental action. Beingness able to introspect may lead to forms of egocentrism, or self-focus, in adolescence. Adolescent egocentrism is a term that David Elkind used to describe the miracle of adolescents' inability to distinguish between their perception of what others recollect nigh them and what people actually think in reality. Elkind'southward theory on boyish egocentrism is drawn from Piaget's theory on cognitive developmental stages, which argues that formal operations enable adolescents to construct imaginary situations and abstruse thinking.

Accordingly, adolescents are able to conceptualize their ain thoughts and excogitate of other people's thoughts.Nonetheless, Elkind pointed out that adolescents tend to focus mostly on their own perceptions, especially on their behaviors and appearance, because of the "physiological metamorphosis" they experience during this catamenia. This leads to adolescents' belief that other people are as attentive to their behaviors and appearance every bit they are of themselves.Co-ordinate to Elkind, boyish egocentrism results in two distinct bug in thinking: the imaginary audition and the personal fable. These likely tiptop at historic period 15, along with self-consciousness in general.

Imaginary audience is a term that Elkind used to describe the miracle that an adolescent anticipates the reactions of other people to him/herself in actual or impending social situations. Elkind argued that this kind of anticipation could be explained by the adolescent's preoccupation that others are as admiring or equally critical of them as they are of themselves.As a upshot, an audience is created, as the adolescent believes that they will be the focus of attention.

All the same, more often than non the audition is imaginary because in actual social situations individuals are non normally the sole focus of public attention. Elkind believed that the construction of imaginary audiences would partially account for a broad variety of typical boyish behaviors and experiences; and imaginary audiences played a role in the self-consciousness that emerges in early on adolescence. However, since the audience is usually the boyish's own construction, it is privy to his or her ain knowledge of him/herself. According to Elkind, the notion of imaginary audience helps to explicate why adolescents commonly seek privacy and feel reluctant to reveal themselves–it is a reaction to the feeling that one is always on phase and constantly under the critical scrutiny of others.

Elkind also addressed that adolescents accept a complex set of behavior that their own feelings are unique and they are special and immortal.Personal fable is the term Elkind created to describe this notion, which is the complement of the construction of imaginary audience. Since an adolescent commonly fails to differentiate their ain perceptions and those of others, they tend to believe that they are of importance to so many people (the imaginary audiences) that they come up to regard their feelings as something special and unique. They may feel that but they have experienced potent and diverse emotions, and therefore others could never empathise how they feel. This uniqueness in one's emotional experiences reinforces the adolescent's belief of invincibility, especially to decease.

This adolescent belief in personal uniqueness and invincibility becomes an illusion that they tin can be above some of the rules, disciplines and laws that utilise to other people; even consequences such every bit expiry (chosen the invincibility fable).This conventionalities that one is invincible removes whatever impulse to command one'southward behavior (Lin, 2016). ^[one] Therefore, adolescents will engage in risky behaviors, such as drinking and driving or unprotected sex activity, and feel they will not suffer whatever negative consequences.

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Intuitive and Analytic Thinking

Piaget emphasized the sequence of thought throughout four stages. Others suggest that thinking does not develop in sequence, just instead, that advanced logic in boyhood may be influenced past intuition. Cognitive psychologists often refer to intuitive and analytic thought as the dual-procedure model; the notion that humans have two distinct networks for processing data (Kuhn, 2013.) ^[2] Intuitive thought is automatic, unconscious, and fast, and it is more experiential and emotional.

In contrast, a nalytic thought is deliberate, conscious, and rational (logical). While these systems interact, they are distinct (Kuhn, 2013). Intuitive thought is easier, quicker, and more unremarkably used in everyday life. Equally discussed in the adolescent brain evolution section earlier in this module, the discrepancy between the maturation of the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex, may make teens more decumbent to emotional intuitive thinking than adults. As adolescents develop, they proceeds in logic/analytic thinking ability and sometimes regress, with social context, education, and experiences becoming major influences. Just put, being "smarter" equally measured by an intelligence test does non accelerate cognition as much as having more experience, in school and in life (Klaczynski & Felmban, 2014). ^[3]

Risk-taking

Because most injuries sustained by adolescents are related to risky behavior (booze consumption and drug use, reckless or distracted driving, and unprotected sex), a nifty deal of research has been done on the cerebral and emotional processes underlying adolescent risk-taking. In addressing this question, it is important to distinguish whether adolescents are more than probable to engage in risky behaviors (prevalence), whether they make adventure-related decisions similarly or differently than adults (cognitive processing perspective), or whether they use the aforementioned processes but value different things and thus arrive at different conclusions. The behavioral decision-making theory proposes that adolescents and adults both counterbalance the potential rewards and consequences of an action. Notwithstanding, research has shown that adolescents seem to give more weight to rewards, peculiarly social rewards, than do adults. Adolescents value social warmth and friendship, and their hormones and brains are more attuned to those values than to long-term consequences (Crone & Dahl, 2012). ^[4]

Figure two. Teenage thinking is characterized by the ability to reason logically and solve hypothetical problems such as how to blueprint, plan, and build a structure. (credit: U.S. Regular army RDECOM)

Some take argued that there may be evolutionary benefits to an increased propensity for risk-taking in adolescence. For example, without a willingness to take risks, teenagers would not have the motivation or confidence necessary to exit their family of origin. In addition, from a population perspective, there is an advantage to having a group of individuals willing to take more than risks and try new methods, counterbalancing the more than conservative elements more than typical of the received knowledge held by older adults.

Relativistic Thinking

Adolescents are more likely to engage in relativistic thinking—in other words, they are more than likely to question others' assertions and less likely to have information as absolute truth. Through experience outside the family circumvolve, they learn that rules they were taught every bit accented are actually relativistic. They brainstorm to differentiate between rules crafted from common sense (don't touch a hot stove) and those that are based on culturally relative standards (codes of etiquette). This tin lead to a menstruation of questioning authorization in all domains.

As we continue through this module, we volition talk over how this influences moral reasoning, too as psychosocial and emotional development. These more than abstract developmental dimensions (cognitive, moral, emotional, and social dimensions) are not only more subtle and difficult to measure, just these developmental areas are also difficult to tease apart from one some other due to the inter-relationships among them. For example, our cognitive maturity will influence the way we understand a particular event or circumstance, which will in turn influence our moral judgments about it, and our emotional responses to information technology. Similarly, our moral lawmaking and emotional maturity influence the quality of our social relationships with others.

School During Boyhood

Secondary Education

Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context (Eccles & Roeser, 2011).Secondary educational activity is traditionally grades 7-12 and denotes the school years subsequently unproblematic school (known every bit primary instruction) and before college or academy (known every bit third education). Adolescents who consummate primary educational activity (learning to read and write) and continue on through secondary and tertiary education tend to also have better health, wealth, and family life (Rieff, 1998).^[5] Because the average historic period of puberty has declined over the years, center schools were created for grades v or half dozen through eight as a way to distinguish between early boyhood and belatedly adolescence, specially because these adolescents unlike biologically, cognitively and emotionally and definitely have dissimilar needs.

Transition to middle school is stressful and the transition is oftentimes circuitous. When students transition from elementary to middle school, many students are undergoing physical, intellectual, social, emotional, and moral changes (Parker, 2013). ^[6] Enquiry suggests that early boyhood is an especially sensitive developmental menstruation (McGill et al., 2012).^[7] Some students mature faster than others. Students who are developmentally behind typically feel more than stress than their counterparts (U.S. Department of Education, 2008).^[8] Consequently, they may earn lower grades and brandish decreased academic motivation, which may increase the rate of dropping out of school (U.S. Section of Education, 2008). For many centre schoolhouse students, bookish achievement slows downwardly and behavioral problems can increase.

Specific Eye School Bug

Regardless of a pupil's gender or ethnicity, middle school is challenging. Although young adolescents seem to desire independence, they also demand protection, security, and structure (Brighton, 2007).^[9] Baly, Cornell, & Lovegrove (2014) found that bullying increases in middle schoolhouse, especially in the start year.^[10] Additionally, dissimilar uncomplicated school, concerns ascend regarding procedural changes. But when egocentrism is at it'south height, students are worried about being thrown into an environment of independence and responsibleness. They are expected to get to and from classes on their own, manage fourth dimension wisely, organize and keep up with materials for multiple classes, be responsible for all classwork and homework from multiple teachers, and at the same time develop and maintain a social life (Meece & Eccles, 2010).^[11] Students are trying to build new friendships and maintain ones they already accept. As noted throughout this module, peer acceptance is particularly important.

Another aspect to consider is technology. Typically, adolescents go their first prison cell phone at about age eleven and, simultaneously, they are also expected to research items on the Internet. Social media utilize and texting increase dramatically and the research finds both harm and benefits to this employ (Coyne et al., 2018).^[12]

Teens, Technology, and Bullying

Bullying is unwanted, aggressive beliefs amidst school anile children that involves a real or perceived ability imbalance. The beliefs is repeated, or has the potential to exist repeated, over fourth dimension. Both kids who are bullied and who groovy others may have serious, lasting problems. It is a prevalent problem during the middle and high schoolhouse years, exacerbated by access to engineering science and the ways to easily spread damaging information online. These are some key statistics about bullying from StopBullying.gov:

• Been Bullied

• Bullied Others

  • Approximately 30% of young people acknowledge to bullying others in surveys.

• Seen Bullying

  • 70.6% of immature people say they have seen bullying in their schools.
  • 70.four% of school staff have seen bullying. 62% witnessed bullying two or more times in the concluding month and 41% witness bullying one time a week or more.
  • When bystanders intervene, bullying stops within 10 seconds 57% of the fourth dimension.

  • 

    Figure 3. Cyberbullying comes in many forms.

• Been Cyberbullied

• How Often Bullied

  • In one large report, near 49% of children in grades 4–12 reported beingness bullied by other students at school at to the lowest degree once during the past calendar month, whereas xxx.viii% reported bullying others during that time.
  • Defining "frequent" involvement in bullying every bit occurring 2 or more times within the by month, 40.6% of students reported some type of frequent involvement in bullying, with 23.ii% existence the youth ofttimes bullied, 8.0% being the youth who frequently bullied others, and 9.4% playing both roles frequently.

• Types of Bullying

  • The nearly common types of bullying are verbal and social. Physical bullying happens less ofttimes. Cyberbullying happens the least ofttimes.
  • According to i large report, the following percentages of middle schools students had experienced these various types of bullying: name calling (44.two %); teasing (43.3 %); spreading rumors or lies (36.3%); pushing or shoving (32.4%); hit, slapping, or kicking (29.2%); leaving out (28.5%); threatening (27.4%); stealing property (27.3%); sexual comments or gestures (23.seven%); e-postal service or blogging (ix.nine%).

• Where Bullying Occurs

  • Most bullying takes place in schoolhouse, outside on school grounds, and on the school double-decker. Bullying besides happens wherever kids assemble in the community. And of class, cyberbullying occurs on jail cell phones and online.
  • According to 1 large study, the post-obit percentages of middle schools students had experienced bullying in these diverse places at school: classroom (29.3%); hallway or lockers (29.0%); deli (23.4%); gym or PE class (19.v%); bathroom (12.ii%); playground or recess (6.2%).^three

Many organizations, schools, teachers, parents, and lawmakers are working to address the issue of bullying. One example is that of ReThink, a technology designed past teenager Trisha Prabhu to recognize bullying online and encourage posters to reconsider their behavior (watch Trisha Prabhu's TED talk)

High Schoolhouse

Equally adolescents enter into high schoolhouse, their connected cognitive development allows them to remember abstractly, analytically, hypothetically, and logically, which is all formal operational thought. High school emphasizes formal thinking in attempt to fix graduates for college where analysis is required. Overall, high school graduation rates in the United states of america have increased steadily over the past decade, reaching 83.2 per centum in 2016 afterward four years in loftier schoolhouse (Gewertz, 2017).^[13] Additionally, many students in the United states of america do attend college. Unfortunately, though, about half of those who go to higher leave without a degree (Kena et al., 2016).^[14] Those that do earn a caste, however, practice make more than coin and have an easier time finding employment. The primal here is agreement adolescent development and supporting teens in making decisions almost college or alternatives to college after high school.

Link to learning

What do you think, is college necessary? Is it worth the investment? Read the article "Is Higher Necessary?" from Psychology Today geared towards parents who can help their teenager decide if college is right for them.

Academic Achievement

Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (eastward.one thousand., parental engagement in adolescents' education), intrapersonal (e.g., intrinsic motivation), and institutional (e.g., school quality) factors. Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive aligning during adolescence but besides because academic accomplishment sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities. The most serious issue of school failure, particularly dropping out of school, is the high risk of unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows. Loftier accomplishment can set the stage for college or future vocational preparation and opportunities.

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Moral Reasoning During Adolescence

Moral Reasoning in Adolescence

Effigy 4. Adolescents' moral development gets put to the test in real life situations, often along with peer pressure to behave or not behave in particular ways.

As adolescents become increasingly indepenorthdent, they also develop more nuanced thinking about morality, or what is correct or wrong. We all brand moral judgments on a daily ground. As adolescents' cognitive, emotional, and social development continue to mature, their understanding of morality expands and their behavior becomes more than closely aligned with their values and beliefs. Therefore, moral evolution describes the evolution of these guiding principles and is demonstrated by the ability to utilise these guidelines in daily life. Understanding moral development is important in this phase where individuals make so many important decisions and proceeds more and more legal responsibility.

If you recollect from the module on Middle Childhood, Lawrence Kohlberg (1984) argued that moral development moves through a series of stages, and reasoning about morality becomes increasingly complex (somewhat in line with increasing cerebral skills, as per Piaget's stages of cognitive evolution). As children develop intellectually, they pass through three stages of moral thinking: the preconventional level, the conventional level, and the postconventional level. In middle childhood into early adolescence, the child begins to care about how situational outcomes bear on others and wants to please and exist accepted (conventional morality). At this developmental stage, people are able to value the good that tin can be derived from property to social norms in the form of laws or less formalized rules. From adolescence and beyond, adolescents begin to employ abstruse reasoning to justify behaviors. Moral behavior is based on cocky-chosen upstanding principles that are by and large comprehensive and universal, such as justice, dignity, and equality, which is postconventional morality.

Influences on Moral Evolution

Adolescents are receptive to their culture, to the models they come across at home, in schoolhouse and in the mass media. These observations influence moral reasoning and moral beliefs. When children are younger, their family, civilisation, and faith profoundly influence their moral controlling. During the early on boyish period, peers accept a much greater influence. Peer force per unit area tin exert a powerful influence because friends play a more significant role in teens' lives. Furthermore, the new ability to retrieve abstractly enables youth to recognize that rules are simply created past other people. As a result, teens brainstorm to question the absolute authorization of parents, schools, government, and other traditional institutions (Vera-Estay, Dooley, & Beauchamp, 2014) ^[xv] By late adolescence, most teens are less rebellious equally they have begun to establish their own identity, their own belief system, and their own place in the earth.

Unfortunately, some adolescents have life experiences that may interfere with their moral development. Traumatic experiences may crusade them to view the globe as unjust and unfair. Additionally, social learning also impacts moral development. Adolescents may have observed the adults in their lives making immoral decisions that disregarded the rights and welfare of others, leading these youth to develop beliefs and values that are opposite to the residuum of society. That beingness said, adults have opportunities to support moral development past modeling the moral graphic symbol that we want to see in our children. Parents are particularly of import because they are mostly the original source of moral guidance. Authoritative parenting facilitates children's moral growth better than other parenting styles and one of the most influential things a parent can do is to encourage the right kind of peer relations. ^[16] While parents may find this process of moral development difficult or challenging, it is important to remember that this developmental step is essential to their children's well-being and ultimate success in life.

Link To Learning

Parenting has the largest impact on adolescent moral development. Read more hither in this commodity, "Building Grapheme: Moral Development in Boyhood" from the Centre for Parent and Teen Communication.

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glossary

boyish egocentrism:

a characteristic of adolescent thinking that leads young people (ages x-thirteen) to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others (according to David Elkind)

analytic idea:

idea that results from analysis, such equally a systematic ranking of pros and cons, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts. Analytic thought depends on logic and rationality

behavioral decision-making theory:

proposes that adolescents and adults both weigh the potential rewards and consequences of an action. Yet, research has shown that adolescents seem to give more than weight to rewards, particularly social rewards, than do adults

constructivist perspective:

based on the work of Piaget, a quantitative, phase-theory approach. This view hypothesizes that adolescents' cognitive improvement is relatively sudden and drastic, equally adolescents acquire by acting on their environment and they actively construct knowledge

deductive reasoning:

reasoning from a full general statement, premise, or principle, though logical steps to figure out (deduce) specifics. Also called height-downwardly processing

divided attention:

the power to pay attention to two or more than stimuli at the same time; this ability improves during adolescence

dual process model/dual processing:

the notion that 2 networks be within the human being encephalon, one for emotional processing of stimuli and i for analytic reasoning

formal operational thought:

the quaternary and final stage of Piaget'south theory of cognitive development, characterized by more systematic logical thinking and by the ability to empathise and systematically manipulate abstract concepts

hypothetical thought:

reasoning that includes propositions and possibilities that may non reflect reality

imaginary audience:

the other people who, in an boyish'due south egocentric belief, are watching and taking annotation of his or her appearance, ideas, and beliefs. This conventionalities makes many adolescents very self-conscious

information-processing perspective:

derives from the written report of artificial intelligence and explains cognitive evolution in terms of the growth of specific components of the overall process of thinking

intuitive idea:

thoughts that arise from an emotion or a hunch, across rational caption, and are influenced past past experiences and cultural assumptions

invincibility legend:

an adolescent's egocentric conviction that he or she cannot exist overcome or even harmed past anything that might defeat a normal mortal, such as unprotected sex, drug abuse, or high-speed driving

metacognition:

refers to "thinking virtually thinking" and it is relevant in social cognition and results in increased introspection, self-consciousness, and intellectualization during adolescence

eye school:

a school for children in the grades betwixt uncomplicated school and loftier schoolhouse. Middle school usually begins with grade 6 and ends with grade 8

mnemonic devices:

mental strategies to help larn and retrieve data more efficiently; improves during adolescence

personal fable:

an aspect of adolescent egocentrism characterized by an adolescent's belief that his or her thoughts, feelings, and experiences are unique, more wonderful, or more awful than anyone else's

relativistic thinking:

thinking that understands the relative or situational nature of circumstances

secondary education:

the period after primary education (simple or class school) and before third education (college). It ordinarily occurs from about ages 12 to eighteen, although at that place is some variation by school and past nation

selective attention:

the process past which one focuses on one stimulus while tuning out some other; this ability improves during adolescence

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-in-adolescence/

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